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Community College Facts and Stats

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Community Colleges

Community Colleges

Overview

"State law requiring 50 percent of funding be spent in the classroom also means that the average community college in the state has a 1:1100 student to counselor ratio, with the resulting lack of guidance for students to finish their degrees or transfers" (Fisher, 2007, p.3).

"Nearly half of all undergraduate students are enrolled in community college - and that percentage is on the rise" (Tatiana, M., Dowd, A., 2006, p.3).

"Community colleges provide a cost-effective pathway to the bachelor's degree for academically prepared, highly motivated students - if they manage to transfer to a selective institution"(Dowd, Bensimon, Gabbard, Singleton, Macias, Dee, et al, 2006, p.7).

The pool of academically talented students at the community college is growing: "Nearly 26,000 students from the class of 1992 who started at community college had earned high school grades that put them in the top fifth of their class" (Dowd, Bensimon, Gabbard, Singleton, Macias, Dee, et al, 2006, p.6).

"In 2004, the average tuition charged by a community college in the state [of Pennsylvania] was $2,514. However, the increase in college costs has had no impact on the number of students that enroll in the state's community colleges. On the other hand, the enrollment rates have actually been increasing steadily" (Floyd Institute, 2006, p.1).

"Many students who attend community colleges choose to attend such institutions not because they are incapable of succeeding at more selective institutions but because they lack what McDonough(1997) calls the cultural capital to select more prestigious private institutions. That is, they do not have the family or schooling background that has introduced them to elite private colleges or provided them with encouragement to attend one of these colleges" (Wolf-Wendel, Twombly, Morphew & Sopchich, 2005, pp.214-215).

Community colleges have the following curricular functions: academic transfer (e.g. to a 4-year university), vocational-technical education (e.g. nursing programs, paralegal, auto repair), continuing education (courses available to all members of a community; to whoever wants to learn), developmental education (remedial coursework), and community service (the community college serving as a local art and community center) (Cohen and Brawer, 2002, p.20).

"Among new students at two-year community colleges, approximately 50% exit before the beginning of the second year" (Hagedorn, Perrakis & Maxwell, 2002).

"Despite the seemingly extensive body of literature related to student persistence, there is still much unknown about the process of student departure and the interplay of forces that give rise to it especially within community colleges" (Hagedorn, Perrakis & Maxwell, 2002).

"Exposure to collaborate learning practices results in positive influences in the following areas: gender and ethnic differences in terms of preferences towards collaborative learning; effects of collaborative learning on student outcomes; determinants of openness to diversity" (Cabera & Pascarella, 2002).

There is a conception that community college students feel as if they are stuck in a well that is difficult to climb out of. This is characterized by a quote from Mao-Tse-Tung: ‘We think too small, like the frog at the bottom of the well. He thinks the sky is only as big as the top of the well. If he surfaced, he would have an entirely different view.’ The idea is that community colleges should work to expand the perceived opportunities that students have available to them, especially in terms of transfer (Campbell, Collins & Hinkckley, 2002).

“Over 5.4 million students enroll for credit in the nation’s more than 1,100 community colleges. They comprise 44 percent of the total number of undergraduates and 46 percent of first-time college students. When they enroll, 42 percent of them indicate their intent to achieve at least a bachelor’s degree” (Hungar, Lieberman, 2001, p.16).

In the United States 300,000 of 2.2 million students who begin college at a two-year institution transfer to a baccalaureate granting institution. Of all bachelor’s degree recipients, 40% have some community college credits on their transcript (Armstrong, 2001, p.9).

"There are many similarities and differences between and among the over 1,200 community colleges in the U.S., there are three common objectives; that is, university parallel programs, career education and continuing education" (McQuay, 2000).

"Low-cost tuition is usually a function of three-way partnership between the local and state government and the student. This three-way sharing of costs usually results in one of the lowest tuitions among higher education" (McQuay, 2000).

"Nearly 50% of those enrolled in public institutions of higher learning attend one of a thousand or so public community colleges in the United States" (Carlan & Byxbe, 2000).

“Two-year institutions make up nearly 28 percent of all colleges and universities, but their collective enrollment constitute about 37 percent of all students in higher education” (Nora, 2000, p.3).

"In the 1994-95 academic year, approximately 57% of the associate degrees awarded were in fields outside of the arts and sciences. The nonliberal arts accounted for slightly less than 50% of the total community college curriculum in studies conducted in 1991 and 1998. Consequently, the nonliberal arts should not be seen as a diversion from the baccalaureate degree. Universities award credit for nearly all science, social science, and humanities courses taken at community colleges. However, the rest of the curricula – technical, trade, and vocational courses – do not transfer as readily” (Striplin, 2000).

"When the California Community Colleges imposed a $50 per unit 'differential fee' on students already holding a bachelor's degree, enrollment decreased by approximately 60,000" (Porter, Hogan & Gebel, 2000, p.4).

The original intent of the junior college was to provide education after high school at a low cost to students never before served by the existing universities. “However, regardless of their written commitment to occupational and terminal education, the transfer programs were dominant” (Perkins, 1998, p.3).

"A recurring theme throughout this report was the importance of strong networking relationships among the instructional counseling faculty as well as faculty in various other student services programs serving transfer students" (Academic Senate for California Community Colleges, Sacramento, 1996, pp.16-17).

The basic point of departure between Canada's community colleges and those of the United States appears to be one of focus. Canadian community colleges have fewer mandated functions and are thus more able to focus on transfer, while those of the United States are required to service the entire community, from transfer to vocational training, to social enrichment. This leads to a more streamlined transfer rate in the Canadian system and a more broad-based appeal in the United States (Dennison & Gallagher, 1986).

"Market segmentation, a modern marketing tool for planning and strategy development, is suggested as a framework for providing clues to the establishment of high-level administrative policy for four-year institutions. The approach is illustrated with a particular four-year institution’s attempt to assess its regional community college transfer market" (Leister & MacLachlan, 1976).

Community Colleges in California

“California ranks among the leaders nationally in college attendance, in numbers and in the percentage of young adults enrolling in postsecondary education” (Shulock & Moore, 2005, p.419).

On average the California Community College offers more credits in transferable programs than in other broad curriculum categories. However, some colleges specialize in nontransferable curriculum, and the differences in missions are reflected in differences in curriculum specialization (Gill & Duane, 2004).

Nine California Community Colleges are regarded as predominantly Hispanic. These campuses are located in the Los Angels Basin and south to San Diego (Gill & Duane, 2004).

"California has 72 community college districts (52 are single college districts, 20 are multi-college districts), 108 colleges, and includes 200 sites (including colleges, central offices, and campus centers" (Community College League of California, Sacramento, 2002, p.1).

"The cost of attending a community college is $6,243/year for students who live with their parents and $11,868 for independent students" (Community College League of California, Sacramento, 2002, p.5).

In the California Community college 43% of students seek occupational education and training, 25% seek personal and professional improvement, while 31% plan to transfer to a four-year institution (Community Coll. League of California, Sacramento, 2002, p.6).

“Without exception, more of California's community college courses in the non-liberal arts transfer to the CSU than to the UC” (Striplin, 2000, p.44).

Fourteen California community colleges classified as low transfer:

L.A. Trade-Tech
Imperial Valley College
Barstow
Monterey Peninsula
L.A. Mission
Lassen
Marin
San Diego City
Rio Hondo
Santa Ana
Cerritos
L.A. Harbor
East L.A.
Chaffey (Hom, 2000)

“The Master Plan of 1960 clearly delineated the functions of California’s three public segments of higher education (University of California, California State University, and California Community College), and little has been done by the legislature during the past 35 years to change this delineation” (Knoell, 1997, p.125).

"Transfer and occupational education persist as dominant functions of California Community Colleges, with remediation, basic skills development, and English as a second language for the colleges’ ever more diversified student body. The colleges’ already broad vocational-technical education mission may expand in both scope and magnitude in the future, in response to federal proposals for changes in both welfare and job training programs" (Knoell, 1997).

“The California constitution currently views the community colleges as part of the ‘common-school’ system, which included kindergarten through Grade 14, even though the community colleges were declared in 1960 to be for Higher Education” (Knoell, 1997, p.122).

“Los Rios Community College District ranked second to the Los Angeles Community College District statewide in the number of student transfers to UC and CSU systems combined for both 1994-95 and 1995-96” (Glyer-Culver & Beacler, 1997, p.3).

The Transfer Function of Community Colleges

"Two findings concerning transfer patterns at California Community Colleges (CCC) that deserved further investigation: (1) among 2000-01 first time students, about one third of those who met the minimum requirement for transfer to California State University (CSU) or University of California (UC) systems had not transfered to any 4-year institution within 6 years of their first enrollment, and (2) a majority of students who had transfered did not meet these requirements. This implies that a large majority of students who do transfer are not on the traditional transfer track (defined as completing 2 years of full-time course work at a community college and transferring as juniors to a 4-year college)" (Horn, L. & Lew, S., 2007, p.1).

"The high proportion of students with initially high goals who experience a decline in those goals may pose large costs for the state and for its economic future" (Driscoll, 2007, p.12).

"California spends more than $73,000 per degree earned, which exceeds both the national average and spending in comparable states" (Gordon, Alderete,Murphy, Sonstelie & Zhang, 2007, as quoted in Driscoll, 2007, p.12).

"Improving persistence and eventual academic success among the largest group of post-secondary students in California will both save taxpayers money and ultimately result in more taxpayers and a stronger economy" (Driscoll, 2007, p.12).

"The analyses suggest that a key intermediate outcome on the way to transfer is whether students persist in their goals and in their studies from the first to the second semester of their first year in college" (Driscoll, 2007, p.12).

"Low rates of completion in the community colleges present a serious problem for California's future. Studies project a shortage of college-educated workers to meet the demand of the state's growing knowledge-based economy" (Shulock, N., Moore, C. 2007, p.2).

"About 40 percent of first-time students in the California community colleges are not seeking a degree or certification, but are pursuing basic skills, job skills, or personal enrichment" (Shulock, N., Moore, C. 2007, p.2).

"Of the 60 percent who are seeking a degree or certificate, only about one-fourth succeed in transferring to a university and/or earning an associate's degree or certificate within six years" (Shulock, N., Moore, C. 2007, p.2).

"Without big gains in educational attainment, especially among the growing Latino population, the state's per capita income will soon fall below the national average and the average education level of the California workforce will decline" (Shulock, N. & Moore, C. 2007, p.2).

"Historically, public policy has been focused on removing barriers to access. These policies have succeeded, as California enjoys high rates of college enrollment" (Shulock, N. & Moore, C. 2007, p.3).

"We must give equal attention to removing barriers to completion in view of the urgent need to increase education levels of the state's workforce. It is not enough simply to open the door to students. Success must be redifined as ensuring that students reach their goals" (Shulock, N. & Moore, C. 2007, p.2).

"Fewer than 1 percent of entering students at the nation's elite private colleges each year, and about 8 percent of those at elite public colleges, transferred from two-year institutions" (Melguzio, Tatiana & Dowd, 2006, Abstract).

Data on community college attendance and its effect on the number of students attaining the baccalaureate are somewhat conflicting. While community colleges encourage enrollment of many students who may not otherwise have access to higher education, there is some evidence that two-year schools are also diverting a number of otherwise successful students who may or may not continue to the four-year institution. Additionally, the confounding factors of disenrollment, re-enrollment, reverse transfer, and other non-traditional paths to the baccalaureate make it difficult to accurately measure the community college's impact on four-year degree attainment (Alfonso, 2006).

"Comparison of raw rates of transfer ignores important differences in the structural conditions and exogenous variables affecting the performance of each college, leading to inequitable stratification of colleges and inaccurate classification of colleges in terms of transfer performance" (Bahr, 2005).

In the year 2002, the California Community College enrolled over 1.5 million students, versus 600,000 students that the University of California and California State University combined enrolled (Gill and Leigh, 2004).

Colleges that have a transfer specialization tend to be in close proximity to a UC or CSU campus, whereas colleges that emphasize nontransferable voc-ed (occupational skill training) tend to have a large proportion of Hispanic students (Gill & Duane, 2004).

"Observers point to efforts, such as the recent Access to the Baccalaureate campaign by the AACC and the American Association of State Colleges and Universities (AASCU) to ease the path of community-college students into four-year institutions, as clear evidence that a baccalaureate movement for community-college graduates is widely embraced throughout American higher education. The push by Dr. Philip Day, chancellor of the City College of San Francisco, and others to establish the National Articulation and Transfer Network (NATN), which aims to channel minority community-college students into four-year schools, has helped focus attention on minorities in the community colleges. Since the founding of the NATN in 2001, several high-profile, cross-state articulation agreements involving historically Black schools and community colleges have emerged, including an agreement between the Maricopa Community Colleges in Arizona and Mississippi Valley State University. 'The (NATN) announcement represented a turning point. That's when the HBCU community seemed to say it was fully on board," says AACC's Kee'” (Roach, 2003).

"In 1999-2000, more than 10,800 community college students transferred to a University of California, more than 47,700 transferred to California State University" (Community College League of California, Sacramento, 2002, p.9).

“‘Outnumbered, isolated, and unsupported’ are the anxieties that students at Seattle Central Community College express about transferring to four-year universities” (Campbell, Collins & Hinckley, 2002, p.1).

More than half of all students attending two-year institutions never attain a post secondary degree (Saenz, 2002).

“Most persons serving in two-year college academic administrations will readily admit their frustration with the student transfer experience. Historically, four-year colleges and universities have viewed two-year colleges in a negative light, publicly stating the quality of student learning at two-year college is poor when compared to the university, and privately viewing the two-year school as an effective low-cost competitor that will steal students if treated as an educational equal. Such concerns have created a difficult environment for the transfer student. This frustration is heightened by the articulation process in which the four-year college has total control of determining what courses are equivalent and allowed to transfer” (Handy, 2001, pp.4-5).

“At least one out of five community college students transfer” (Eggleston & Laanan, 2001, p. 87).

Transfer performance at the University of California or California State University that is determined by factors outside the control of college administrators are: distance to nearest UC or CSU campus, the number of students under the age of 25, the number of students receiving the Board of Governors Waiver, and the number of students with an uninformed transfer goal (Hom, 2000).
Large inner-city colleges or small rural colleges are likely to have low transfer rates (Hom, 2000).

"As a matter of fact, over fifty percent of all students studying in the U.S. Higher Education system are enrolled in one of over 1,200 community colleges. The process of transfer is often referred to as articulation" (McQuay, 2000).

"Twenty-eight percent of transfers indicated that while attending community college they were unaware that the IGETC option was available among general education patterns for transfer students" (Rudmann & Morrison, 2000).

"81% of the students who were aware of the IGETC option elected to use it" (Rudmann & Morrison, 2000).

"54% of students using the IGETC option chose to do so to assure completion of GE requirements, 36% did so in order to maximize their transfer options" (Rudmann & Morrison, 2000).

"72% of the students were aware of the IGETC option while they were enrolled at a community college" (Rudmann & Morrison, 2000).

"88% of students who did not select the IGETC option were unaware of it" (Rudmann & Morrison, 2000).

"26% of students who used the IGETC option found that IGETC did not meet all requirements" (Rudmann & Morrison, 2000).

An examination of Austin Community College transfer students moving from the community college to one of three four-year institutions revealed that grade point average did not decline based upon the size, prestige, or orientation (research vs. liberal arts) of the four-year college (Austin Community College, Texas. 1999).

Federal policy has led to some degree of diffusion in the effectiveness of the transfer function of community colleges. With mandates that require community colleges to offer a variety of sometimes conflicting programs (i.e. vocational and transfer tracks), state and federal policies have historically interfered with the community college's success in increasing transfer rates (Cohen, 1999).

"Nationally, [transfer] rates are low where community colleges have been organized as vocational centers, as in Indiana, and high where they are closely articulated with the state's university system, as in West Virginia" (Cohen, 1999).

“Transfer as the dominant function [of the community college] meant that emphasis was placed on liberal arts curricula and that the relationships with senior institutions were important” (Perkins, 1998, p.8).

"In compliance with The Master Plan for Higher Education (1985) and Senate Bill 121 (1991), which both establish transfer as a priority for California's colleges and universities, the California Community Colleges (CCC) and the University of California (UC) adopted a collective mission. To provide access and opportunity for students, CCC and UC propose to increase transfer rates by 33% before the year 2005" (Nussbaum, 1997).

In 1997, the University of California and the California Community Colleges adopted the following understanding in order to strengthen the transfer process:

Providing access and opportunity

A mutual goal was established to increase enrollment of community college transfers from 10,900 in 1995-6 to 14,5000 or more by the year 2005-6.

Ensuring Success

Improving Articulation Procedures
Develop Assist as the Official Statewide Repository for Articulation Information
Reinvigorate Transfer Center Partnerships
Enhance Transfer Alliances
Create More Part-Time Options at the University of California
Develop “Baccalaureate” Financial Aid Packages
Intensify Outreach Activities
Increase Data Collection and Exchange
Enhance Cooperative Admissions Programs (California Univ., Berkley, Office of the President, 1997).

"Governor Deukmejian signed Senate Bill 121 in October 1991. The bill established that a strong transfer function is the joint responsibility of California Community Colleges, the University of California, and the California State University systems" (Academic Senate for California Community Colleges, Sacramento, 1996, p.4).

There is some evidence that the community college system may in fact discourage students from continuing to the four-year institution. Particularly in the case of minority students, some degree of "vocational tracking" occurs, whereby students are diverted into programs at the community college which do not lend themselves easily to transfer (Brint & Karabel, 1989).

Diversity

General

"Students of color comprise approximately 36 percent of the enrollment in public and private two-year degree-granting institutions" (Aragon & Perez, 2006).

"Community colleges serve a disproportionate number of historically underrepresented minorities — Latinos are the largest of these groups" (Wolf-Wendel, Twombly, Morphew & Sopchich, 2005, p.214).

"Along with attracting students of color, the transfer agreements also bring in older women students, single parents, low-income students, and recent immigrants. This is, in large part, due to the Ada Comstock Program that provides financial and academic support to women whore-enter college" (Wolf-Wendel, Twombly, Morphew & Sopchich, 2005, p.221).

“Community colleges could specifically address the educational needs of Black men by developing, for example, formal mentorship programs between faculty and students and providing learning cohorts and communities” (Bush, 2005, p.1).

In 1992, the Board of Governors of the California Community Colleges adopted a Student Equity Policy to ensure that groups historically underrepresented in higher education have an equal opportunity for access, success, and transfer. The board amended that policy in 1996 to: Establish the adoption of a student equity plan as a minimum standard for receipt of state funding / Expand its focus beyond historically underrepresented groups in order to promote student success (Academic Senate of California Community Colleges, 2002, p.1).

“…America's 1,200 community colleges educate over half of all minority students in higher education.” (Saenz, 2002, p.2)

"Approximately 1.6 million students attended the Community College League of California community colleges in 2001, 45.3% of whom were white, 27.1% Latino, 16.5% Asian American, 8% African American, 1.1% Native American, and 2% other" (Community College League of California, Sacramento, 2002, p.4).

"The number of minority students on community college campuses is increasing at a rapid pace: up 61.3% from 1986-1996. Nonetheless, in 1996, 89% of the nation's community college presidents, 87% of community college trustees, and 90% of faculty were white" (Lovell, Alexander, & Kirkpatrick, 2002, Abstract).

The Board of Governors of California’s Community College System has recognized that colleges operate under individual social and economic environments, and that these differences include performance of colleges due to predetermined outcome measures (Barh, 2002).

“One district, the Los Angeles Community College District, serves four times as many African-American, and 2.7 times as many Latino, students as all University of California campuses combined” (Community College League of California, Sacramento, 2002, p.4).

"Despite its importance, there has been very little research on community college students for whom English is not their native tongue" (Hagedorn, Perrakis & Maxwell, 2002).

"Low-income and non asian minority students have lower transfer and program completion rates, compared to their white counterparts from families with higher income" (Zamani, 2001, p.1).

“More than half of all Hispanic and African American students who attend college following graduation from high school enter two-year institutions” (Nora, 2000, p.3).

“While community colleges have always credited themselves with having an open-door policy aimed at serving those underrepresented in four-year colleges and universities, enrollment figures for high-tech and much more rewarding occupational programs reveal that minority students continue to be underrepresented and at times unrepresented in those areas” (Nora, 2000, pp.3-4).

“While the attrition rates at certain institutions may imply that students are not dropping out in as large numbers as in the past, the researchers note that withdraw trends at community colleges are still prevalent, specifically with regard to minority student populations. Attrition rates for minority students in two-year colleges is about 60 percent and in some instances is as high as 80 percent” (Nora, 2000, p.3).

“Student characteristics (preparedness from high school, socioeconomic status, etc.) alone have not explained, and do not explain, the high dropout behavior of community college students” (Nora, 2000, p.3).

“A reduction in the number of minorities at research universities, coupled with corresponding high attrition rates and low transfer rates, will ultimately exclude people of color from fully participating in society. Access to high education will rest on two-year institutions as the only means of entrance into a high education setting leading to the attainment of an undergraduate degree” (Nora, 2000, p.5).

"Most of the students who have been historically under-represented in higher education who graduate from California high schools and who pursue higher education begin in a community college" (Academic Senate for California Community Colleges, Sacramento, 1996, p.3).

"Very recently, programs have been established to address the minority teacher shortage. These programs focus on the recruitment and retention of minority students in teacher education, include special consideration for the urban setting, and involve cooperative agreements between universities and community colleges. Urban community colleges could be a rich source of minority teachers, provided that teacher education institutions offer special programs which encourage the enrollment and persistence of these students" (Minter & Young, 1995).

Community Colleges vs. 4-year Institutions

"41 percent of all Asian-Pacific Islander, 43 percent of all African American, 49 percent of all American Indian-Alaska Native, and 58 percent of all Latino students in higher education were found within two-year colleges" (Aragon & Perez, 2006).

"The Los Angeles Community College District serves four times as many African-American and 2.7 times as many Latino students as all University of California campuses combined" (Community College League of California, Sacramento, 2002, p.4).

"While Hispanics are underrepresented in four-year institutions, they are well represented in two-year institutions, where more than 55 percent of all Hispanic students enroll" (Saenz, 2002, p.2).

“Minority students comprise 51 percent of public two-year colleges enrollment and 52 percent of those in public four-year schools. Prior to 1996, the California legislature had encouraged higher education institutions to increase enrollment of students of color. In that year, passage of Proposition 209 eliminated affirmative action in college admission policies. This law did not affect community college students directly, because there are no barriers to community college admission. It has, however, had a chilling effect on minority applications to the universities, particularly the most selective. Community college transfer to UC institutions decreased seven percent between 1994 and 1998. The greatest declines were among African-American, Asian and Filipino students” (Hungar, Lieberman, 2001, p.50).

Latino Students

"After 38 years as a community college counselor, Dean of Student Support Services Ricardo Ramirez said that he has been unsuccessful in convincing other college leaders to move to a more group-oriented approach that he feels helps Latino students succeed. Based on his own experience, Ramirez says Latino students are raised in a culture where the family is more important than the individual. Therefore, group or team-based learning is more successful with those students than the traditional single-student approach" (Fisher, 2007, p.10).

“Imperial Valley College near the Mexican border reports the maximum proportion of Hispanic students (85.6 percent)” (Gill & Duane, 2004).

Hispanic students are often attracted to community colleges because they willingly accept part-time students, offer neighborhood convenience, and have an open admissions policy. In addition, Hispanic adults tend to have a high labor force participation rate. A major contributing factor in choosing the community college is the flexibility to go to school and maintain a part time job (Saenz, 2002).

"Latino students involved in a faculty mentoring program, where students worked closely with faculty as advisors and "academic coaches," performed with much greater academic success and reported greater satisfaction with their university experience (Santos & Reigadas, 2002).

“While Hispanics are underrepresented in four-year institutions, they are well represented in two-year institutions, where more than 55 percent of all Hispanic students enroll” (Saenz, 2002, p.2).

“29% of all Latinos enrolled in higher education in the United States attend a California community college” (Community College League of California, Sacramento, 2002, p.4).

Cohen & Brawer

"Their standing outside the tradition of higher education - first with its exclusivity of students, then with its scholarship and academic freedom for professors - was both good and bad for the community colleges. Initially, it gained support for them from influential university leaders, who welcomed a buffer institution that would cull poorly prepared students and send only the best on to the upper division. ... But it also doomed community colleges to the status of alternative institutions" (Cohen, A., Brawer, F., The American Community College, Fourth Edition. 2003. Josey Bass Pub. San Francisco, US., pp-7-8.).

"Organizationally, most of the early public community colleges developed as upward extensions of secondary schools" (Cohen, A., Brawer, F., The American Community College, Fourth Edition. 2003. Josey Bass Pub. San Francisco, US., p.8).

" ...other developed nations, especially those of Western Europe from which most of the American ideas of education were imported, did not develop community colleges of their own" (Cohen, A., Brawer, F., The American Community College, Fourth Edition. 2003. Josey Bass Pub. San Francisco, US., p.10).

"The 6-4-4 plan also allowed students to change schools or leave the system just when they reached the age limit of compulsory school attendance" (Cohen, A., Brawer, F., The American Community College, Fourth Edition. 2003. Josey Bass Pub. San Francisco, US., p.12).

"...community colleges tended to be built so that 90 to 95 percent of the state's population lived within reasonable commuting distance, about twenty-five miles" (Cohen, A., Brawer, F., The American Community College, Fourth Edition. 2003. Josey Bass Pub. San Francisco, US., pp-16-17.).

"Academic transfer, or collegiate, studies were meant to fulfill several institutional purposes: a popularizing role, a democratizing pursuit, and a function of conducting the lower-division courses for the universities. ...The function of relieving the universities from having to deal with freshmen and sophomores was less pronounced because the universities would not relinquish their lower divisions. Instead, community colleges made it possible for them to maintain selective admissions requirements and thus to take only those freshman and sophomores that they wanted" (Cohen, A., Brawer, F., The American Community College, Fourth Edition. 2003. Josey Bass Pub. San Francisco, US., p.21).

"In 1950 60 percent of the students in the upper division of the University of California at Berkeley, according to the registrar, are graduates of other institutions, largely junior colleges" (Cohen, A., Brawer, F., The American Community College, Fourth Edition. 2003. Josey Bass Pub. San Francisco, US., pp. 21-22).

"The community colleges have been essential especially to the educational progress of people of lower academic ability, lower income, and other characteristics that had limited their opportunity for postsecondary enrollment" (Cohen, A., Brawer, F., The American Community College, Fourth Edition. 2003. Josey Bass Pub. San Francisco, US., p.44).

"As Cross (1971) pointed out, three major philosophies about who should go to college have dominated the history of higher education in this country: the aristocratic, suggestion that white males from the upper socioeconomic classes would attend; the meritocratic, holding that college admission should be based on ability; and the egalitarian, which "means that everyone should have equality of access to educational opportunity, regardless of socioeconomic background, race, sex, or ability" (Cohen, A., Brawer, F., The American Community College, Fourth Edition. 2003. Josey Bass Pub. San Francisco, US., p.44).

"Many of the early leavers have already attained the objective for which they attended" (Cohen, A., Brawer, F., The American Community College, Fourth Edition. 2003. Josey Bass Pub. San Francisco, US., p.62).

"The availability of the institution seemed quite popular and may have even contributed to the lack of persistence" (Cohen, A., Brawer, F., The American Community College, Fourth Edition. 2003. Josey Bass Pub. San Francisco, US., p.62).

"One concern within faculty is the low academic achievement of sizable numbers of their students" (Cohen, A., Brawer, F., The American Community College, Fourth Edition. 2003. Josey Bass Pub. San Francisco, US., p.74).

"Graduate degrees were rarely found in among teachers in career programs, where experience in the occupations along with some pedagogical training was considered the best preparation; but among the liberal arts instructors in many colleges, the proportion with the doctorate surpassed 25 percent" (Cohen, A., Brawer, F., The American Community College, Fourth Edition. 2003. Josey Bass Pub. San Francisco, US., p.78).

In 2000, 63 percent of community college instructors possessed a Masters degree in their field, by far the majority of faculty teaching at junior colleges (Cohen, A., Brawer, F., The American Community College, Fourth Edition. 2003. Josey Bass Pub. San Francisco, US., p.78).

"More so than in the universities, less so than in the for-profit sector, community colleges depend on a part-time workforce" (Cohen, A., Brawer, F., The American Community College, Fourth Edition. 2003. Josey Bass Pub. San Francisco, US., p.85).

"By 1998, 62 percent of faculty were part-timers" (Cohen, A., Brawer, F., The American Community College, Fourth Edition. 2003. Josey Bass Pub. San Francisco, US., p.85).

"The colleges have come to depend on low-cost labor to balance the budget" (Cohen, A., Brawer, F., The American Community College, Fourth Edition. 2003. Josey Bass Pub. San Francisco, US., p.85).

"Part-time instructors are to the community colleges as migrant workers are to the farms" (Cohen, A., Brawer, F., The American Community College, Fourth Edition. 2003. Josey Bass Pub. San Francisco, US., p.86).

"The beurocratic model presents the college as a formal structure with defined patterns of activity that relate to the functions spelled out in law and policy decisions. The positions are arranged in the shape of a pyramid, and each series of positions has specified responsibilities, competencies, and privileges" (Cohen, A., Brawer, F., The American Community College, Fourth Edition. 2003. Josey Bass Pub. San Francisco, US., p.104).

With respect to gevernance and administration, "the beurocratic and political models seem most appilcable to community colleges" (Cohen, A., Brawer, F., The American Community College, Fourth Edition. 2003. Josey Bass Pub. San Francisco, US., p.105).

"The California Community College Board's Chancellor's Office has five vice chancellors in charge of everything from legal affairs and governmental relations to student services and curriculum and instruction" (Cohen, A., Brawer, F., The American Community College, Fourth Edition. 2003. Josey Bass Pub. San Francisco, US., p.113).

"...22 percent of community college presidents are women, and 13 percent are members of minority groups..." (Cohen, A., Brawer, F., The American Community College, Fourth Edition. 2003. Josey Bass Pub. San Francisco, US., p.127).

"Various efforts to make community colleges more efficient have been undertaken in order to increase student learning and at the same time maintain cost-effectiveness. Staff members have attempted to make the college more accessible to more students, cut student attrition, and teach more for less money. However, increased production in one area might lead to a decrease in another; for example, success in attracting different types of students to community colleges might increase the cost of instruction. Measuring productivity by the number of students processed throught a class in a given time equates the outputs of education with those of a factory. Hence, most moves toward efficiency have been in plant utilization, staff deployment, record keeping, and information processing" (Cohen, A., Brawer, F., The American Community College, Fourth Edition. 2003. Josey Bass Pub. San Francisco, US., p.138). [Note that these are all beurocratic innovations toward efficiency.]

"Community college budgets total more than $21 billion annually..." (Cohen, A., Brawer, F., The American Community College, Fourth Edition. 2003. Josey Bass Pub. San Francisco, US., p.141).

"The state helped somewhat with budgets; for example, in 1920, when a federal law ruled that money derived from mining and producing oil and gas on public lands would be turned over to the states, the California legislature decided to give these proceeds to the junior colleges-but their support continued to come predominantly from local tax funds" (Cohen, A., Brawer, F., The American Community College, Fourth Edition. 2003. Josey Bass Pub. San Francisco, US., p.142).

"...the overall cost of attending a two-year college has climbed to three-fourths that of four-year public institution" (Cohen, A., Brawer, F., The American Community College, Fourth Edition. 2003. Josey Bass Pub. San Francisco, US., p.149).

"In California...colleges are required to process applications for admission, offer orientation and preorientation services for students, deliver assessment and counseling at the time of enrollment, counsel students regarding their academic and career objectives, asses study and learning skills, advise on course selection, and conduct postenrollment evaluations of student's performance" (Cohen, A., Brawer, F., The American Community College, Fourth Edition. 2003. Josey Bass Pub. San Francisco, US., p.200).

"Apparent change in the developing personality is more likely to be revealed in a four-year residential college than in a commuter institution where most students attended part time (Cohen, A., Brawer, F., The American Community College, Fourth Edition. 2003. Josey Bass Pub. San Francisco, US., pp.202-203).

"But when students appear without distinct career or study goals, when their goals do not match their abilities, or when the testing instruments do not adequately asses them, the role of the counselor has been blurred" (Cohen, A., Brawer, F., The American Community College, Fourth Edition. 2003. Josey Bass Pub. San Francisco, US., p.203).

"Vocational education enrollments began growing at a rate greater than liberal arts enrollments in the 1960's and continued to do so for twenty years" (Cohen, A., Brawer, F., The American Community College, Fourth Edition. 2003. Josey Bass Pub. San Francisco, US., p.226).

"Although many individual colleges offered one hundred or more different occupational programs, those that led to the greatest variety of career options were most popular" (Cohen, A., Brawer, F., The American Community College, Fourth Edition. 2003. Josey Bass Pub. San Francisco, US., p.228).

"Respondents to surveys of businesses and industries usually give high marks to community college-based training programs" (Cohen, A., Brawer, F., The American Community College, Fourth Edition. 2003. Josey Bass Pub. San Francisco, US., p.234).

"...each year of credit at a community college is associated with a 5 to 8 percent increase in annual earnings-which happens to be the same as the estimated value of a year's worth of credit at a four-year college" (Cohen, A., Brawer, F., The American Community College, Fourth Edition. 2003. Josey Bass Pub. San Francisco, US., p.239).

"A view of the community colleges as terminal institutions and of the universities as institutions for students interested in the liberal arts is woefully inaccurate" (Cohen, A., Brawer, F., The American Community College, Fourth Edition. 2003. Josey Bass Pub. San Francisco, US., p.249).

"They have always tended to let everyone in but have then guided students to programs that fit their aspirations and in which they have some chance to succeed" (Cohen, A., Brawer, F., The American Community College, Fourth Edition. 2003. Josey Bass Pub. San Francisco, US., p.260).

"The point is that the colleges have now abandoned the practice of allowing studeents to drop in and drop out at will and have moved distinctly into a mode of mandatory assessment and placement in sequences designed to keep students in school and to help them improve their basic skills so that they can complete an academic or vocational program satisfactorily" (Cohen, A., Brawer, F., The American Community College, Fourth Edition. 2003. Josey Bass Pub. San Francisco, US., p.266).

"High failure rates have led to numerous charges that the community colleges are a dead end for many of their matriculants, especially minority students. By reducing standards...the colleges were merely pushing the problem off to the students' employers or the academic institutions in which they subsequently enroll" (Cohen, A., Brawer, F., The American Community College, Fourth Edition. 2003. Josey Bass Pub. San Francisco, US., p.279).

"Major or sudden changes in community college courses can often be traced to a nearby university's changing its graduation requirements or its specifications for the courses that must be on the transcripts of incoming transfer students" (Cohen, A., Brawer, F., The American Community College, Fourth Edition. 2003. Josey Bass Pub. San Francisco, US., p.318).

"...courses in social history, film appreciation, and the history of art in certain cultures have increased. Most of these changes have attracted students to areas in which enrollments were diminishing" (Cohen, A., Brawer, F., The American Community College, Fourth Edition. 2003. Josey Bass Pub. San Francisco, US., pp.325-326).

"Articulation and transfer are enhanced considerably when programs are closely coupled" (Cohen, A., Brawer, F., The American Community College, Fourth Edition. 2003. Josey Bass Pub. San Francisco, US., p.329).